Justice⁚ A Reader by Michael Sandel
Justice⁚ What’s the Right Thing to Do? by Michael J․ Sandel․ An intoxicating invitation to take apart and examine how we arrive at our notions of right ․․․45 pages Liberalism and the Limits of Justice(1982; 2nd ed․‚ 1998) Liberalism and Its Critics‚ editor (1984) Democracys Discontent⁚ America in Search of a Public Philosophy (1996) Public Philosophy⁚ Essays on Morality in Politics (2005) The Case Against Perfection⁚ Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering (2007) Justice⁚ A Reader‚ editor (2007)
Overview
In Justice‚ American political philosopher Michael Sandel explores how political philosophers throughout the ages have answered these questions․ Then‚ he offers his own critiques‚ insights‚ and examples to show how these abstract theories can apply to real-life political and moral dilemmas․ In our guide to Justice‚ we’ll explore Sandel’s arguments and the various philosophical perspectives presented in the book․
Key Themes
Sandel’s Justice delves into the fundamental questions of fairness‚ rights‚ and the good life․ It explores three major approaches to justice⁚ utilitarianism‚ libertarianism‚ and the ethics of virtue․ The book examines how these theories apply to contemporary issues like affirmative action‚ same-sex marriage‚ and the role of markets in society‚ ultimately prompting readers to consider their own moral principles and the complexities of achieving a just society․
Utilitarianism
Sandel introduces utilitarianism‚ a philosophy that emphasizes maximizing happiness for the greatest number of people․ He explores the work of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill‚ who argued that the just action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number․ Sandel presents the theory’s strengths and weaknesses‚ highlighting its potential to justify actions that might be considered unjust if individual rights are not taken into account․
Libertarianism
Sandel delves into libertarianism‚ a philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty and limited government intervention․ He examines the ideas of Robert Nozick‚ who argued that individuals have a fundamental right to self-ownership and that any interference with this right is unjust․ Sandel explores the libertarian perspective on issues like taxation‚ redistribution of wealth‚ and the role of markets in society․
Ethics of Virtue
Sandel introduces the ethics of virtue‚ which focuses on the character and moral development of individuals․ He explores the philosophy of Aristotle‚ who argued that justice involves giving people their due‚ what they deserve based on their virtues and contributions to society․ Sandel examines how this perspective can inform our understanding of political participation‚ social roles‚ and the pursuit of a good life․
Sandel’s Critique of Utilitarianism
Sandel challenges the utilitarian approach by arguing that it fails to adequately consider individual rights and the inherent moral worth of human beings․ He highlights the potential for utilitarianism to justify sacrificing the interests of minorities for the sake of the majority‚ and he questions whether it is possible to accurately measure and compare different values and pleasures in a way that truly reflects their importance․
Sandel’s Critique of Libertarianism
Sandel critiques libertarianism by arguing that it fails to recognize the social and historical factors that shape individual choices and opportunities․ He contends that a purely individualistic approach to justice ignores the inherent interconnectedness of human beings and the role of community in shaping individual lives․ Sandel also questions whether true freedom can exist in a society where individuals are solely responsible for their own well-being‚ without any support or obligation to others․
Sandel’s Critique of the Ethics of Virtue
Sandel acknowledges the allure of the ethics of virtue‚ but he also identifies its potential pitfalls․ He argues that relying solely on a shared understanding of the good life can lead to a stifling of individual freedom and potentially oppressive social structures․ He also expresses concern about the potential for a virtuous society to become overly homogeneous and intolerant of dissent‚ ultimately undermining the very principles of justice it seeks to uphold․
Applications of Justice
Sandel’s exploration of justice extends far beyond abstract philosophical discussions․ He delves into real-world dilemmas that ignite debate and expose the complexities of applying ethical principles․ From the moral implications of affirmative action to the fairness of income inequality‚ Sandel examines how different theories of justice grapple with contemporary issues‚ prompting readers to engage in critical reflection and form their own conclusions․
The Moral Side of Murder
Sandel’s exploration of moral reasoning commences with a thought-provoking scenario⁚ Would you kill one person to save the lives of five others? This hypothetical case‚ presented in the first lecture‚ sets the stage for a deep dive into the ethical complexities of justice․ By engaging students in this thought experiment‚ Sandel encourages them to confront the moral dilemmas that lie at the heart of justice‚ setting the foundation for a profound exploration of various ethical frameworks․
The Case for Cannibalism
In Lecture 2‚ Sandel introduces the principles of utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham through a gripping 19th-century case involving a shipwrecked crew․ Faced with starvation after 19 days at sea‚ the captain makes the agonizing decision to kill the cabin boy‚ the weakest member‚ to provide sustenance for the rest․ This harrowing tale prompts a deep dive into utilitarianism‚ a philosophy that prioritizes maximizing happiness for the greatest number of people․
Putting a Price Tag on Life
Sandel delves into contemporary cases where cost-benefit analysis was employed to assign monetary value to human life in Lecture 3․ These examples raise profound questions about the utilitarian logic of seeking the greatest good for the greatest number․ Sandel challenges the idea of quantifying all values using a common measure like money‚ sparking debate about the ethical implications of such practices․
How to Measure Pleasure
In Lecture 4‚ Sandel introduces J․ S․ Mill‚ a utilitarian philosopher who argues that maximizing happiness for the greatest number can coexist with protecting individual rights․ Mill proposes a distinction between higher and lower pleasures‚ suggesting that some forms of enjoyment are more valuable than others․ Sandel explores Mill’s attempts to reconcile individual liberty with the pursuit of collective well-being․
Free to Choose
In Lecture 5‚ Sandel introduces the libertarian perspective‚ drawing parallels between redistributive taxation and forced labor․ The argument suggests that taxing the wealthy to assist the less fortunate violates individual freedom by forcing individuals to contribute their earnings against their will․ Sandel presents this view as a challenge to traditional notions of social justice and explores the tension between individual liberty and collective responsibility․
Who Owns Me?
In Lecture 6‚ Sandel examines the concept of merit and its role in determining just outcomes․ The question arises⁚ do individuals who achieve success deserve the benefits of their talent and effort? Sandel explores the complexities of this question‚ considering the influence of luck and inherited circumstances on individual success․ He challenges the notion that wealth is solely a product of individual merit‚ prompting a debate among students representing a libertarian perspective․
This Land is My Land
In Lecture 7‚ Sandel delves into the philosophical foundations of property rights‚ drawing upon the ideas of John Locke․ Locke argues that individuals possess fundamental rights to life‚ liberty‚ and property‚ stemming from a pre-governmental “state of nature․” Sandel explores the implications of Locke’s theory for the origin and legitimacy of private property․ He examines the question of how private property emerges from a state of nature‚ prompting reflection on the nature of individual rights and the role of government in defining and protecting them․
Consenting Adults
Lecture 8 delves into the complex relationship between individual rights and government authority․ Sandel questions whether government actions like taxation or conscription‚ which might involve taking property or life‚ are truly justifiable if they are not based on explicit consent․ He examines the tension between individual liberty and the legitimate authority of government‚ raising questions about the extent to which individuals can be compelled to comply with laws and policies that they did not explicitly agree to․
Hired Guns?
Lecture 9 explores the ethics of conscription and its relationship to social justice․ Sandel discusses the historical practice of allowing individuals to hire substitutes to fight in their place during the Civil War‚ which many students deemed unjust․ The lecture raises questions about the fairness of allowing wealthier individuals to avoid military service by paying others to fight for them․ He then examines whether the modern voluntary army system is susceptible to similar objections‚ prompting a discussion on the moral implications of different forms of military service․
For Sale⁚ Motherhood
Lecture 10 delves into the complex intersection of free-market exchange and reproductive rights․ Sandel examines the growing commercialization of aspects of reproduction‚ such as egg and sperm donation‚ and explores the ethical implications of these practices․ He then analyzes the famous Baby M case‚ which raises the unsettling question of who ultimately owns a child born through surrogacy․ This exploration challenges students to grapple with the moral limits of market forces in the realm of human reproduction․
Mind Your Motive
Sandel introduces the groundbreaking philosophy of Immanuel Kant‚ known for his challenging yet influential ideas about morality․ Kant argues that true morality lies in acting out of duty‚ doing what is right simply because it is right‚ regardless of personal gain or convenience․ Using the example of a shopkeeper who avoids shortchanging a customer out of fear for his business reputation‚ Kant highlights the distinction between actions driven by self-interest and those motivated by moral obligation․ This lecture sets the stage for exploring Kant’s profound and often counterintuitive perspective on ethical decision-making․
The Supreme Principle of Morality
Immanuel Kant‚ according to Sandel‚ believes that the essence of moral worth lies in our capacity to transcend self-interest and act out of duty․ He emphasizes the importance of acting for the sake of rightness‚ not for personal gain or inclination․ Sandel illustrates Kant’s “categorical imperative‚” a test for moral rightness‚ by examining real-life scenarios․ This principle involves identifying the underlying principle of an action and then determining whether it could be universally applied to all individuals without contradiction․ This lecture delves into the core of Kant’s ethical framework‚ challenging listeners to consider the fundamental principles that guide our moral judgments․
A Lesson in Lying
Immanuel Kant held a strong conviction that even a white lie constitutes a violation of one’s dignity․ Sandel presents a thought-provoking hypothetical scenario⁚ if a friend was hiding in your home and a murderer arrived asking for their location‚ would it be morally wrong to lie? This engaging thought experiment leads to a video clip featuring one of the most prominent recent examples of evading truth—President Clinton’s testimony about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky․ Sandel’s exploration prompts a critical examination of the boundaries of truthfulness and its implications for personal integrity․
A Deal is a Deal
Sandel introduces the influential modern philosopher‚ John Rawls‚ who argues that a just society is one that adheres to principles chosen in a hypothetical scenario where individuals lack knowledge of their advantages or societal roles․ Rawls posits that this “veil of ignorance” ensures that principles of justice are based on fairness rather than self-interest․ Sandel elaborates on Rawls’ concept‚ emphasizing that a just society should prioritize the well-being of its most vulnerable members․ This concept is further explored through discussions about social mobility and the role of government in creating a more equitable society․
Whats a Fair Start?
Rawls argues that a meritocracy‚ a system that rewards effort‚ is insufficient to achieve true fairness․ Rawls points out that success often depends on arbitrary factors like birth order or familial circumstances․ Sandel emphasizes this point by asking students who were firstborn in their families to raise their hands․ This simple act highlights the inherent inequalities that exist even in a meritocratic society․ Rawls proposes that a just society must take steps to level the playing field‚ providing opportunities for those who may have been disadvantaged by circumstances beyond their control․
What do We Deserve?
Sandel delves into the fairness of income disparities in modern society by comparing the salaries of former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor ($200‚000) and television personality Judge Judy ($25 million)․ He poses the question⁚ Is this disparity fair? This thought-provoking example challenges conventional notions of merit and reward‚ prompting reflection on the factors that contribute to such significant differences in compensation․ Sandel encourages his students to consider whether these disparities are justified or whether a more equitable distribution of wealth is necessary for a just society․
Arguing Affirmative Action
Sandel delves into the complex and often controversial issue of affirmative action‚ exploring the ethical considerations surrounding its use in college admissions․ He encourages students to engage in a lively discussion about the pros and cons of considering race and ethnicity as factors in the selection process․ The lecture examines the arguments for and against affirmative action‚ drawing on real-life examples and significant court cases that have shaped public opinion on this contentious topic․ Sandel challenges students to think critically about the principles of fairness‚ equality‚ and opportunity as they relate to affirmative action policies․
Whats the Purpose?
Sandel introduces the philosophical framework of Aristotle‚ who diverges from the perspectives of Rawls and Kant․ Aristotle argues that justice is about giving individuals their due‚ what they deserve․ He uses the example of the best flutes being awarded to the most skilled flute players‚ suggesting that the highest political positions should be held by those with the greatest civic virtue and judgment․ This concept of “giving people their due” forms the foundation for Aristotle’s understanding of justice․ Sandel explores the implications of this perspective in the context of modern society‚ prompting students to consider how it might be applied to contemporary issues․
The Good Citizen
Aristotle believed that the purpose of politics is to cultivate and promote the virtue of its citizens․ He saw the telos‚ or goal‚ of the state and its community as the pursuit of the good life․ According to this perspective‚ those citizens who contribute most to the purpose of the community deserve the greatest rewards․ However‚ Sandel presents a critical question⁚ how do we determine the purpose of a community or a practice? Aristotle’s theory of justice leads to a contemporary debate about the nature of golf․ Sandel explores a legal case where a disabled golfer sued the PGA‚ challenging their refusal to allow him to use a golf cart․ This case raises questions about how the purpose of golf‚ and its associated rules‚ might be interpreted and applied․
Freedom VS․ Fit
How does Aristotle address the complex relationship between individual rights and the freedom to choose? Sandel delves into one of the most prominent objections to Aristotle’s philosophy‚ his defense of slavery as a fitting social role for certain individuals․ Students engage in discussion‚ exploring other objections to Aristotle’s theories and debating whether his philosophy ultimately limits individual freedom․ This exploration highlights the tension between the idea of assigning roles based on perceived fitness and the fundamental principle of individual autonomy and choice․